Level of Significance in Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing is a widespread scientific process used across statistical and social science disciplines. In the study of statistics, a statistically significant result (or one with statistical significance) in a hypothesis test is achieved when the p-value is less than the defined significance level. The p-value is the probability of obtaining a test statistic or sample result as extreme as or more extreme than the one observed in the study whereas the significance level or alpha tells a researcher how extreme results must be in order to reject the null hypothesis. In other words, if the p-value is equal to or less than the defined significance level (typically denoted by ÃŽ ±), the researcher can safely assume that the observed data are inconsistent with the assumption that the null hypothesis is true, meaning that the null hypothesis, or premise that there is no relationship between the tested variables, can be rejected. By rejecting or disproving the null hypothesis, a researcher is concluding that there is a scientific basis for the belief is some relationship between the variables and that the results were not due to sampling error or chance. While rejecting the null hypothesis is a central goal in most scientific study, it is important to note that the rejection of the null hypothesis is not equivalent to the proof of the researcher’s alternative hypothesis. Statistical Significant Results and Significance Level The concept of statistical significance is fundamental to hypothesis testing. In a study that involves drawing a random sample from a larger population in an effort to prove some result that can be applied to the population as a whole, there is the constant potential for the study data to be a result of sampling error or simple coincidence or chance. By determining a significance level and testing the p-value against it, a researcher can confidently uphold or reject the null hypothesis. The significance level, in the simplest of terms, is the threshold probability of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is in fact true. This is also known as the type I error rate. The significance level or alpha is therefore associated with the overall confidence level of the test, meaning that the higher the value of alpha, the greater the confidence in the test. Type I Errors and Level of Significance A type I error, or an error of the first kind, occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when in reality it is true. In other words, a type I error is comparable to a false positive. Type I errors are controlled by defining an appropriate level of significance. Best practice in scientific hypothesis testing calls for selecting a significance level before data collection even begins. The most common significance level is 0.05 (or 5%) which means that there is a 5% probability that the test will suffer a type I error by rejecting a true null hypothesis. This significance level conversely translates to a 95% level of confidence, meaning that over a series of hypothesis tests, 95% will not result in a type I error.

The Ethics Of Physician Assisted Suicide - 926 Words

According to Mirror News, In October of 2014 a women named Charlotte Fitzmaurice Wise was watching her daughter Nancy Fitzmaurice suffer from pain. She was born with Hydrocephalus and septicaemia which made it impossible for her to walk, talk, eat or drink. She required around the clock care and was fed through tubes. As time went on her health worsened and she would scream in pain even though she was injected with morphine. Wise believed that her daughter was in excruciating pain and deserved to be at peace. Wise submitted an application to end her daughter’s misery, and soon her application would be approved. She was able to relieve her daughter from pain, and made it legal in the United Kingdom for a parent to end their critically ill child’s life if they are disable and can’t speak for themselves. People have been questioning the ethics of physician assisted suicide since the late 18th century. According to medicinenet the definition of physician assisted suicide is â€Å"the voluntary termination of one s own life by administrating a lethal substance with the direct assistance of a physician.† This would typically come into play if/when a critically ill patient wants to end their suffering. Confirming with the State-by-State Guide to Physician-Assisted Suicide, 5 states have Paquin 2 Legalized physician assisted suicide. California, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington have made it legal by legislation, and Maine has made it legal by a court ruling. The remaining 45 statesShow MoreRelatedThe Ethics Of Physician Assisted Suicide Essay1655 Words   |  7 Pagespersonal perception of a â€Å"good life† even if they are not hurting anyone else? The exceedingly divided dispute around the procedure of physician-assisted suicide (PAS) asks this very question. Although PAS is reasonably fresh to the sphere of moral matters it is often the main topic in many discussions about proper healthcare and palliative care. Physician-assisted suicide was initially permitted in the state of Oregon when the state passed its Death with Dignity Act in 1994 (Kotva, 2016). The Act requiresRead MorePhysician Assisted Suicide And Ethics725 Words   |  3 Pages Legality of Physician Assisted Suicide and Ethics Luz Garcia Taunton University of Texas Rio Grande Valley â€Æ' Abstract Physician assisted suicide is defined as a doctor intentionally killing a person by the administration of drugs, at that person’s voluntary and competent request. Research has been conducted in different countries to determine under what conditions this practice is acceptable. Most health care practitioners agree that this is only suitable when the patient in question is sufferingRead MoreThe Ethics Of An Physician Assisted Suicide2729 Words   |  11 Pages In any event the topic of discussion and the purpose of this term paper is to explore biology and the ethics of this natural science. The topic of this paper is Physician Assisted Suicide; it has been widely debated amongst doctors, patients, politicians and law makers. The question that will be explored is the fact of if this is wrong or right to do. The purpose of physician assisted suicide, as well as how humans manipulated this phenomenon, and the controversy of this topic, amongst other prevalentRead MoreThe Ethics O f Physician-Assisted Suicide1381 Words   |  6 PagesPhysician-assisted suicide can be the withholding of essential care, but it can also be the administration of lethal drugs either by the patient themselves or by a medical professional to end suffering from incurable diseases (Richmond, 2014). Is it fair to make someone live in chronic pain for the rest of their life when there are options? If someone has tried all options to live and have come to terms with no more options, is it okay to help them end their life? The choices do not come easy andRead MoreThe Ethics Of Physician Assisted Suicide1723 Words   |  7 PagesPhysician assisted suicide, the suicide of a patient suffering from an incurable disease, effected by the taking of lethal drugs provided by a doctor for this purpose. The question of whether or not this practice should be made legal in the United States has been one of controversy since 1997. Beginning with the case of Washington v. Glucksberg, where the United States Supreme Court ruled that the matter of the constitutionality of a right to a physician’s aid in dying, was best left up to the statesRead MoreUtilitarian And Virtue Ethics Of Physician Assisted Suicide1314 Words   |  6 PagesPhysician Assisted Suicide Physician assisted suicide or PAS is a controversial topic in the world today. But the important question is, should physician assisted suicides be allowed in cases such as: the patient’s suffering is far too great and there is no chance of them getting better? This is a highly debated issue, that has activist groups on both sides fighting for what they think is the right thing to do. Physician assisted suicides can stop the excruciating pain a patient is in, especiallyRead MoreEthics And Social Responsibility Of Physician Assisted Suicide Essay2503 Words   |  11 Pages Ethics in Physician Assisted Suicide Chataqua Wilson SOC120: Introduction to Ethics and Social Responsibility Instructor: Denise Antoon Augustl 1, 2014 Ethics in Physician Assisted Suicide Physician assisted suicide refers to the voluntary termination of the life of a particular patient. It is conducted through administering a lethal substance with direct or indirect assistance from the physician. The case of physician-assisted suicide has caused many debates.Read MorePhysician Assisted Suicide : Comparative Religious Ethics1783 Words   |  8 Pages Physician Assisted Suicide RST-331-20 Comparative Religious Ethics Brian D. Berry, Ph.D. Fall 2014 Physician Assisted Suicide 2 Physician Assisted Suicide is defined as suicide committed with the aid of a physician who facilitates a patient’s death by providing the necessary means and or information to perform the life ending act. The physician provides sleeping pills and information about the lethal dose, which is fully aware the patient will commit suicide. The patientsRead MoreEssay Moral and Ethics: Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide 1776 Words   |  8 PagesEuthanasia and physician-assisted suicide are actions that hit at the core of what it means to be human - the moral and ethical actions that make us who we are, or who we ought to be. Euthanasia, a subject that is so well known in the twenty-first century, is subject to many discussions about ethical permissibility which date back to as far as ancient Greece and Rome , where euthanasia was practiced rather frequently. It was not until the Hippocratic School removed it from medical practice. EuthanasiaRead MoreThe Ethics Of Assisted Suicide1526 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract Physician assisted suicide, otherwise noted as â€Å"PAS,† has existed for many years, however has made a controversial appearance in legislation recently. Patients’ and their end of life decisions have shaped the way PAS has been portrayed today. Nurses play an important role in the everyday life of transitioning patients, which places them at the forefront of assisted suicide. Nurses must have clear and defined rules when it applies to assisted suicide, and what they can do if this

Competency Statement II free essay sample

As a preschool teacher I support my children’s physical development by playing an indoor game such as leap frog. Where my children stand in a line and the first person in the line ducks down on the knees like a dog and the second child in line leaps over like a frog. The children continue to do this until the first who gets to the finish line. The children enjoy this physical activity very much. This activity is perfect when the weather outside is not so good. When the entire class is playing together and making a good team, is when I know that this activity is a keeper. When the weather is good and sunny outside I love the game tag! This physical activity absolutely promotes energy and gives the children a reason to run with laughter and excitement. Another physical activity that I would support in my preschool classroom is Simon says. We will write a custom essay sample on Competency Statement II or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This activity appeals to them very well. The children get very serious when the play Simon says. And when I don’t say Simon says they actually were listening. They enjoy this game/activity because we are all learning the importance of language and respect. This matter also deals with socialization. When I explain to them that if I don’t say â€Å"Simon says† then you have to sit down, this game gets very challenging for them. â€Å"Duck, duck GOOSE! † is actually one of my children’s favorite game to play when we are indoors. This game gives them so much energy and excitement that it just fills the entire classroom with that happy energy. I even sit down and participate and play along with them. Whenever I play this game with them, I always have a big smile on my face. Intellectual As a preschool teacher I support my children’s intellect by giving him/her a boost in mathematical and scientific development with an easy measuring experiment. I would ask my child to pick a few different objects that are different sizes and weights, for example a toy car or some crayons. I would ask him/her which ones he/she thinks will weigh the most and the least. I would go in and weigh the objects to compare the different numbers that represent each one. Then, I would have him/her compare the numbers. This activity usually gives them a sense of what knowledge really is and why we are here learning every day. Another great activity I enjoy supporting my children’s intellectual skills is helping that child create a pictorial schedule. A pictorial schedule is a collage-like picture schedule that allows the child to cut out pictures from a magazine and paste them depending on what he/she did all day yesterday. I can even have him/her cut out photos or drawings of things that he/she does at different times of the day for example eating breakfast, going to preschool, having lunch, playtime, eating dinner and going to bed. I would also help them to paste the pictures in order on their own daily time-line.

James William Gibsons Novel, Warrior Dreams Analysis Essay Example

James William Gibsons Novel, Warrior Dreams: Analysis Paper For most men, their definition of masculinity includes strength, adventure and the will to compete in violent struggles. This theory Is reinforced In popular movies, television shows, music, and books that glorify this behavior and have dangerous consequences for our country and even around the world. The seriously threatening and real-world Implications that can be found In the political and popular culture varies from all kinds of different movies, television shows, and even video games. Movies that have real world gun fights and bloody cringing scenes like the Saw series movies, and war movies like Saving Private Ryan, Full Metal Jacket, Gladiator and the Rumba series has contributed to the promotion and acceptance of violence in our society. These movies all portrayed a strong leader and warrior hero that was dominant and is what may have led to most warrior fantasies for males that watch these films and cannot control their actions. Especially movies that were about the Vietnam War, showing how different things were during and after the war. For example, when the United States had to deal with an extremely dilapidating loss In the Vietnam War, It was almost as If no one knew what to do. The people In America were nearly dazed and confused on how to take action and how they truly felt after the shameful defeat In Vietnam. I also agree with Gibbons sociological theories and interpretation of response of American subculture after the disillusionment and disgrace that was felt by Americans when the united states lost. American were used to winning all wars and always had been. We will write a custom essay sample on James William Gibsons Novel, Warrior Dreams: Analysis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on James William Gibsons Novel, Warrior Dreams: Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on James William Gibsons Novel, Warrior Dreams: Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This first defeat in a war changed almost everything in regards to males attitudes and egos. Men felt that they had to get back their masculinity to prove they were winners not losers. As mentioned in Warrior Dreams in Signs of Life, The bitter controversies surrounding the Vietnam War had discredited the old American ideal of the gasoline warrior hero for much of the public. (Gibson 627) Meaning that most of the people In America were severely affected by this war, even the sales of ammunitions In stores and weapons Increased after the war. In the media today, Television shows have plenty to offer young males to take this warrior fantasy the wrong way on violence and in dangerous situations. I believe that many of the warrior Tentacles Godson NAS explain auto are strongly placket up tongue television shows for example the series 24, Prison Break, and Hobos The Sopranos all promote violence and crime. Many young adult males seem to duplicate these violent actions and then anticipate acceptance of this behavior towards other people in the real world. These implications include, gang fights, school violence, murders and massacres like the Columbine High School incident, Virginia Techs dramatic day, and the Cleveland High School shootings. One example of how real-world implications can be caused by warrior fantasies is the Columbine High School massacre. The Columbine High School massacre occurred on Tuesday, April 20, 1999, at Columbine High School in Jefferson County, Colorado. Two senior students, Eric Harris and Dylan Keyhole, began a massacre killing of 12 students and one teacher. They also had injured 21 other students, including three people that were attempting to escape. Eric Harris and Dylan Keyhole then committed suicide. It is the fourth-deadliest school massacre in United States history, after the 1927 Bath School disaster, 2007 Virginia Tech massacre and the 1966 University of Texas massacre, and the deadliest for an American high school. The Virginia Tech massacre is another example how real-world warrior fantasies can eve implications affecting people in a very negative way. The Virginia Tech massacre was a school shooting that took place April 16, 2007 on the campus of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blackburn, Virginia. In two separate attacks, approximately two hours apart, Swung-Huh Choc, killed 32 people and wounded many others before committing suicide. The massacre is the deadliest peacetime shooting incident by a single gunman in United States history, on or off a school campus. Campus police in the United States and Canada are often sworn Alice officers employed by a public school district, college or university to protect the campus and surrounding areas and the people who live on, work on and visit it. No one thinks anything of it anymore, but it didnt use to be like that. On-campus police officers at schools all around the country is an accepted occurrence now. Many campus police forces employ a combination of police officers, security guards and student workers. Responsibilities of student employees can range from limited administrative activities to law enforcement functions comparable to those held by emission officers. I believe that in the past our society that didnt need as much security, however, schools today we require and expect a higher degree of safety at all times. Warrior Dreams explains how the gun culture relates to the history of violence that America has encountered over the years since the loss of Vietnam. It also challenges the common belief that we lost in Vietnam because we didnt fully commit to it, which Gibson proposes is a suitable lie to Justify modern militarism. After reading Gibbons essay a few times, I think that the book paints an overly negative picture. My views on this writing are supportive and I have had the same conclusions as he has had through out the writing. I believe that supporting Gibbons suggestions is something that most people would agree with because of the violent facts that have occurred in violent incidents all around the country and world wide for years now. If these theories were examined and discussed in high schools by students across the country, the Implications would De lessoned. I en negative response could De replace DYE positive action and helpful dialogue with a required course titled, Life without Violence.

Slavery’s Implications Essays

Slavery’s Implications Essays Slavery’s Implications Essay Slavery’s Implications Essay Often times, intelligent people can utterly disagree on a point and all make compelling arguments for their position.   Such contentious issues tend to be ones that are very interesting to discuss.   In fact, one such example can be found in the idea, proposed by Frederick Douglass in his autobiography, that the institution of slavery was as deleterious to some of â€Å"the white owners and overseers† as it was to â€Å"the slaves.†Ã‚   This concept, which as a matter of subjective opinion could be argued almost endlessly with no resolution, still brings up extraordinarily interesting issues.   Indeed, one could argue that the â€Å"white owners and overseers† were harmed by slavery just as much as the slaves were, due to things such as physical harm, societal harm, and moral harm. It would, perhaps, be apropos to begin with what is probably the least detrimental of the damages that slavery visited upon those who wielded it, namely physical harm.   Of course, particularly in light of the many atrocities against slaves that are vividly detailed in Douglass’ autobiography, the idea that slavery physically harmed the slave-owners seems somewhat laughable.   When one examines the question more closely, though, it seems apparent that there was in fact some physical damage done to the slave-owning aristocracy.   For instance, at one point Douglass details the â€Å"management† of his master’s horses by two fellow slaves, both named Barney (Douglass 34).   On the face of things, where exactly is the harm in that to his master, Colonel Lloyd?   There doesn’t outwardly seem to be any.   That, however, is the insidious nature of the harm that is taking place.   Outwardly, the idea of having all the physical labor in one’s life done by someone else does not seem a particularly injurious occurrence.   In truth, though, one is really being robbed of one of life’s most basic gifts, the feeling of an honest day’s labor. Needless to say, that doesn’t really compare to the level of actual physical damage that was done to the slaves themselves.   It is important to remember, however, that pure physical hurt is not necessarily the litmus test for harm.   For instance, in terms of societal harm, the white slave-owners of the south were hurt on a massive scale.   An example of how this is so can be found in Frederick Douglass’ description of Mr. Severe, who â€Å"was rightly named:   he was a cruel man.†Ã‚   (Douglass 29).   Consider the following circumstance, for example, wherein Douglass talks about how he saw Severe, â€Å" ¼whip a woman, causing the blood to run half an hour at the time; and this, too, in the midst of her crying children, pleading for their mother’s release.†Ã‚   (Douglass 29).   Now, in the majority of societies, an individual like Mr. Severe, who seemed to be a sociopathic lunatic, would end up incarcerated or somehow exiled from the remainder of society.   Within the scope of a society employing slavery, though, he instead finds good employment and the perfect venue to display his sickening tendencies.   This is just one example of the sort of damage that slavery did to the slave-owners’ societal fabric. Societal harm, however, pales in comparison to the injuries that slavery visited on the slave-owners morally.   There are myriad ways that one could examine this moral decay, but one exceptional example can be found in Douglass’ analysis of the hypocritical nature of Christianity amongst slave-holders, found in the book’s appendix (Douglass 120).   This is a truly wonderful condemnation of the ethical and moral environment that is allowed to thrive under slavery.   Douglass writes, â€Å"He who sells my sister, for purposes of prostitution, stands forth as the pious advocate of purity.†Ã‚   (Douglass 121).   Truly, such fearsome hypocrisy can only really come to be in a society in which the hypocritical base of power is that some people can own others for wholly arbitrary reasons. Likewise, the institution of slavery also destroyed the natural, intrinsic morality of its biggest proponents.   For example, one might look at the two brutal, evil acts of murder that Douglass describes back to back, the murders of his wife’s cousin and an old man who was oyster fishing (Douglass 41-42).   It is no secret that under slavery all of the darkest, most iniquitous inclinations of the human mind are unleashed.   Things such as rape, incest, murder, and sheer sadism are unleashed when people are given total control to act with impunity towards another human being.   Sometimes, however, it takes actual examples, described in black-and-white terms that are inescapable, to fully manifest the understanding of this in one’s mind.   This is precisely what Douglass does throughout his autobiography.   In the same way that Elie Wiesel chronicled the horrors of the holocaust in his book Night, Douglass systematically depicts the horrors of slavery, all to help those who cannot really conceive of it in their efforts to do so. In conclusion, it seems rather evident that one could make a convincing argument that the white slave-owners were as injured by slavery as were the slaves.   Of course, as Frederick Douglass would’ve almost certainly admitted, self-inflicted injury is significantly less apt to be viewed compassionately compared to the terrible injury that was imposed on the slaves.   On the other hand, the self-inflicted damage is in some ways infinitesimally more severe, due to the fact that there is no moral vindication like there is with the injury that happened to the slaves.   In any case, this highly contentious subject matter is one that will continue to be fascinating and relevant for generations to come.   In fact, the issue of slavery’s full implications is such a rich, deep subject that one could quite easily devote a lifetime, in its entirety, to nothing other than the study of such repercussions.

Dual vs. Duel

Dual vs. Duel Dual vs. Duel Dual vs. Duel By Mark Nichol When dual and duel go head to head in a usage fight, the one that wins, as is often the case, depends on the field of battle, otherwise known as the context. The adjective dual derives from the Latin term dualis, related to duo, the Latin word for two. Duo, of course, was borrowed directly into English and remains a synonym for two. The related term duet, which refers to a performance by a pair of singers or musicians (who may constitute a duo), comes from duetto, an Italian diminutive form of duo. Oddly, though there are similar words for increasingly larger groups of performers, each of which employs the Latin word for a number from four to eight and the suffix -et quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet there is no term corresponding to a group of three; for that, the word trio, adopted from French and Italian use and based on the Latin prefix tri-, must suffice. For musical groups of more than eight (and sometimes less), a more general term like band, ensemble, or orchestra is employed. Terms in which dual is a root include duality and dualism, each of which refers to various schools of thought or principles about human behavior or about phenomenology. The adjective dual-purpose refers to something that has two distinct functions, dual-action is a similar term frequently employed in product names, and the slang term variously spelled dualie, dualy, duallie, or dually (plural: dualies or duallies) identifies a pickup truck equipped with two side-by-side pairs of wheels for greater strength for carrying or towing. Duel, it turns out, isn’t etymologically related to dual. It stems ultimately from the Latin word duellem, a variation of bellum, meaning â€Å"war.† (The latter Latin term is the origin of the root of antebellum â€Å"before the war† often applied to the culture of the American South before the Civil War, and of belligerent and bellicose, both of which mean â€Å"aggressive,† or â€Å"warlike.†) Duellem acquired a meaning of one-on-one combat by the unwittingly incorrect association of it with duo. Duello, the Italian word for duel, is also a rarely used synonym in English that also refers to the traditions of dueling observed by aristocrats counting out paces, the presence of seconds, or assistants, and so on. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Bare or Bear With Me?Between vs. In BetweenIf I Was vs. If I Were

Introduction to Shipping Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Introduction to Shipping - Essay Example This paper aims at explaining the design process and factors to be considered with the building of a commercial ship and describing the scope and scale of the international shipping industry. A ship design process refers to a process in which the ship owner description and requirements are set into specifications, drawing, and technical information needed for the actual building of the ship. This process is always led by a naval architect but highly contributed to by designers, engineers and many other relevant professionals. The ship designing process is subdivided into various phases. During each phase, the design is improved by increasing the level of details. The owners specification about the ship to be designed must contain detailed about fuel endurance, cargo capacity in terms of volume and weight, and speed (Okumoto 2009, p. 64). The building and operation cost are determined by the owner. The ship design process mainly consists of four stages. These stages are: identification of needs; definition of requirements; selection of the design criteria and development of solution framework. The process can also be phased into three phases namely: initial design, basic design, and the detailed design. This nature of the process can be referred to as a design spiral methodology and strategy. Given that the design requirements is not always similar for all ship owners, it is always important to make use of the relevant tools and experience in incorporating different and conflicting expectations and requirements in design missions (Barrass 2004, p. 101). At the initial design stage, the design team has the task of determining the parameters that are supposed to be the basis for the optimal ship dimensions. The team should also hull form development and also propulsion auxiliary systems and system selection in accordance to the requirements of the owner. This stage of design is mainly characterized by analysis